Comparative Literature Translation St Essay

452? F 132 Abstract || The link between Comparative Literature and translation creates a new reading framework that challenges the classic approach to translation, and allows the widening of the scope of the translated text. This paper explores this relationship through the analysis of two versions of Charles Baudelaire’s Les ? eurs du mal published in Argentina during the 20th century, stressing the nature of translation as an act of rewriting. Keywords || Comparative literature | Translation | Rewriting | Charles Baudelaire 133 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen – Santiago Venturini  452? F. #04 (2011). 131-141. 0. Comparative literature and translation: a reading framework There are at least two ways to conceive the link between comparative literature and translation studies. Exchanging the terms in the framework of an inclusion relationship, it is possible to consider two differentiated series of questions and to assign different scopes to the link. This exchange appears basically related to the two possible answers to the question about the limits of these disciplines, that are traditionally linked: so, it is possible to consider translation studies asâ€Å"one of the traditional areas of comparatism† (Gramuglio,   2006) or to support, as Susan Bassnett did more than a decade ago (1993), the need for a reversal to happen –similar to the one Roland Barthes established between semiology and linguistics–, to make translation studies stop constituting a minor ? eld of comparative literature in order to be the major discipline that shelters it (solution through which Bassnett tried to put an end to what he de? ned as the â€Å"un? nished long debate† on the status of the discipline of comparative literature, empowered by the criticism blow that Rene Wellek gave to the discipline in 1958)1. Beyond this ambiguity, what is important to underline is the existence of this consolidated link between two disciplines, or I should rather say, between the discipline of comparative literature(s) and the phenomenon of translation –which, on the other hand, de? ned itself as the object of a speci? c discipline barely some decades ago–. In this sense, there is a spontaneous way of thinking about the link between comparative literature and translation: the one that de? nes translation as an event and a central practice for comparatism, since it locates itself at the meeting point of different languages, literatures  and cultures. From this point of view, translation is the activity which is â€Å"synthetic† par excellence, the one that operates at the very intersection of languages and poetics, and the one that makes possible, because of its ful? lment, the ful? lment of other analytic approaches to the texts relating to each other. Nevertheless, this has not always been this way. In an article devoted to the vicissitudes of this link, Andre Lefevere pointed out that, in the beginning, comparative literature had to face a double competence: the study of classical literatures and the study of national literatures,  and that it chose to sacri? ce ranslation â€Å"on the altar of academic respectability, as it was de? ned at the moment of its origin†2. And, although translation became necessary for the discipline, it hardly tried to move beyond the comparison between European literatures, all the translations were made, criticized and judged, adopting the inde? nable parameter of â€Å"accuracy†, that â€Å"corresponds to the use made of translation in education, of classical literatures as well as of NOTES 1 | Bassnett asserts that: â€Å"The ? eld of comparative literature has always claimed the studies on translation as a sub? eld, but now, when the  last ones are establishing themselves, for their part, ?rmly as a discipline based on the intercultural study, offering as well a methodology of a certain rigor, both in connection with the theoretical work and with the descriptive one, the moment has come in which comparative literature has not such an appearance to be a discipline on its own, but rather to constitute a branch of something else† (Bassnett, 1998: 101). 2 | â€Å"In order to establish the right to its own academic territory, comparative literature abdicated the study of what it should have been, precisely, an important part of its effort†Ã‚  (Lefevere, 1995: 3). 134 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen – Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. national literatures† (Lefevere, 1995: 4). The critical thinking of the XXth century conferred translation the transcendence it had not had historically and postulated it as a clearly- de? ned object of study. Although this emancipation was achieved already in the second half of the century, it is clear that there are crucial contemporary texts about practices previous to this period. In this sense, the preface by Walter Benjamin to his German translation  of the Tableaux Parisiens by Charles Baudelaire, entitled â€Å"The Task of the Translator† (1923), constitutes an unavoidable contribution that, nevertheless, has not always been appraised. A lot has been said on this text –let’s remind the readings, canonical, by Paul De Man (1983) and by Jacques Derrida (1985)–, whose formulations were decisive for a conceptualization of translation the way it was presented some decades later by post-structuralism. Let’s recover, at least, one of the ideas that organize this document: â€Å"No translation would be possible if its supreme aspiration would be similarity with the original. Because in its survival –that should not be called this way unless it means the evolution and the renovation all living things have to go through– the original is modi? ed† (Benjamin, 2007: 81). Through this proposition, that can seem obvious to the contemporary reader, Benjamin emphasizes, in the twenties, the inevitable inventive nature of any translation and destroys the conception of the translated text as a copy or a reproduction of the original, although without attacking the dichotomical pair original/translation, â€Å"distinction that Benjamin will never renounce nor devote some questions to† (Derrida, 1985). A renunciation that will be carried out, as Lawrence Venuti points out, by the poststructuralist thought –especially deconstruction–,that again raised the question in a radical way of the traditional topics of the theory of translation through the dismantling of the hierarchical relationship between the â€Å"original† and the â€Å"translation† through notions such as â€Å"text†. In the poststructuralist thought â€Å"original† and â€Å"translation† become equals, they hold the same heterogeneous and unstable nature of any text, and they organize themselves from several linguistic and cultural materials that destabilize the work of signi?  cation (Venuti, 1992: 7). From this acknowledgment, we recover a synthetic Derridean formula: â€Å"There is nothing else but original text† (1997: 533). Thus, translation stopped being an operation of transcription in order to be an operation of productive writing, of re-writing in which what is written is not anymore the weight of the foreign text as a monumental structure, but a representation of this text: that is, an invention. It is not anymore a question of transferring a linguistic and cultural con? guration to another one a stable meaning –as happens with the platonic and positivist conceptions of the meaning that,  according to Maria Tymoczko, are still operating in the education and 135 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen – Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. training of translators in the West (Tymoczko, 2008: 287-288)–, but a practice of creation that writes a reading, an ideological practice accomplished not only by the translator –that becomes now an active agent and not a mere â€Å"passer of sense† (Meschonnic, 2007)–, but by a whole machinery of importation that covers outlines, comments, preliminary studies, criticism, etc.  , and in which a variety of ? gures are involved. In these new coordinates, translation can be de? ned as a practice that is â€Å"manipulative†, if it models an image of the authors and of the foreign texts from patterns of their own: â€Å"Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. Any rewriting, whatever its intention, re? ects a particular ideology and particular poetics, and as such, they manipulate literature in order to make it work in a particular society, in a particular way† (Lefevere and Bassnett in Gentlzer, 1993: IX). This quote reproduces the already famous assertion by Theo Hermans: â€Å"From the point of view of the target literature, any translation implies a degree of manipulation of the source text with a particular purpose. Besides, translation represents a crucial example of what happens in the relationship between different linguistic, literary and cultural codes† (1985: 11-12). To assume the status that we have just conferred to translation implies to re-shape the link between this later and comparative literature. Because when it stops being de? ned in the restrictive terms of mediation or transfer of the stable meaning of an â€Å"original† text, and when it attains the autonomy of an act of rewriting of another  text according to an ideology, a series of aesthetic guidelines and of representations on otherness, translation gives up its role of instrumental practice and appears as the privileged practice that condenses a rank of questions and problematic issues related to the articulations greater than what is national and transnational, vernacular and foreign. Translation becomes the event related to contrastive linguistics par excellence; the key practice of what Nicolas Rosa calls the â€Å"comparative semiosis†: La relacion entre lo nacional y lo transnacional, y la implicacion subversiva  entre lo local y lo global pasa por un contacto de lenguas, y por ende, por el fenomeno de la traduccion en sus formas de transliteracion, transcripcion y reformulacion de  «lenguas » y  «estilos ». La traduccion, en todas sus formas, de signo a signo, de las relaciones inter-signos, o de universo de discurso a universo de discurso es el fenomeno mas relevante de lo que podriamos llamar una  «semiosis comparativa » (Rosa, 2006: 60-61). 1. Two Argentinean versions of the spleen by Baudelaire Once the approach to translation that we favour in this work is speci? ed, what we intend now is to re? ect on the particular case of  136 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen – Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. the Argentinean translations of Les ? eurs du mal (1857) by Charles Baudelaire. We will focus on two comprehensive translations of Les ?eurs du mal, and two very different publications: the one that can be de? ned as the inaugural translation of Baudelaire in Argentina, carried out by the female poet Nydia Lamarque –published by the publishing house Losada in 1948 and reprinted numerous times to date–, and the one signed by Americo Cristofalo for the Colihue  Clasica collection from the publishing house Colihue, published originally in 2006, and that appears as the last link of the chain of Argentinean translations. The difference between the date of publication of the translation by Nydia Lamarque –belated, if we take into account that a ? rst translation to Spanish, incomplete, came out in 19053– and the one by Americo Cristofalo, reports the currency of the name of Charles Baudelaire along the lines of translations of French poetry in Argentina; name that, next to the names of Stephane Mallarme and Arthur Rimbaud – the founder triad of modern French poetry– survives through different  decades4. What interests us now is to try out a cross-reading of the poems by Baudelaire and the rewritings by Nydia Lamarque and Americo Cristofalo. We will not use the comparison according to the frequent use that has been given to it in the study of translations, that is, as a method to reveal a collection of translation strategies implemented in each case with the purpose of identifying â€Å"diversions† with regard to the original. As Andre Lefevere has pointed out, to think about a new relationship between comparative literature and translation implies to set aside the approach with regulations, the one that pretends to  differentiate between â€Å"good† translations and â€Å"bad† translations, to concentrate on other questions, such as the search of the reasons that make some translations having been or being very in? uential in the development of certain cultures and literatures (Lefevere, 1995: 9). In this sense, what we intend is to read the sequence of these texts, with the purpose of demonstrating dissimilar ways of articulation with the Baudelairean poetics, two rewritings that take shape as different forms of literary writing in which the vernacular and the foreign are linked, and that are backed up by an ideology. In order to do this, we are going to con? ne our analysis to one of the poems entitled â€Å"Spleen† that is included in one of the ? ve sections that structure Les ? eurs du mal: â€Å"Spleen and Ideal†. Walter Benjamin pointed out that the Baudelairean spleen â€Å"shows life experience in its nakedness. The melancholic sees with terror that the earth relapses into a merely natural state. It does not exhale any halo of prehistory. Nor any aura† (1999: 160). In this sense, the spleen marks the death of the character of idealism â€Å"either of enlightened or NOTES 3 | We are talking about the translation by the Spaniard. Eduardo Marquina, a version marked by modernist aesthetic conventions. As Antonio Bueno Garcia has pointed out, the translation of the works by Charles Baudelaire in Spain is a fact that takes place belatedly, not due to ignorance of the writers of that period –for whom Baudelaire was a recognized in? uence– but for â€Å"the censorship problems of the second half of the XIXth century†. Garcia gets even to declare that, over and above the translation by Marquina at the beginning of the XXth century and two more versions published in the forties, â€Å"the restoration of Baudelaire’s spirit and therefore of his works  does not take place until after the Second World War, and in Spain until well into the seventies† (Bueno Garcia, 1995). 4 | Besides the two translations that we tackle in this work, we can take again the prose translation of Las ? ores del mal signed by Ulises Petit de Murat (1961) and the presence of Baudelaire in anthologies like Poetas franceses contemporaneos (Ediciones Buenos Aires: Librerias Fausto, 1974) or Poesia francesa del siglo XIX: Baudelaire, Mallarme, Rimbaud (Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de America Latina, 1978), both of them prepared by the poet Raul Gustavo Aguirre. 137 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen – Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. lyrical and romantic education† (Cristofalo in Baudelaire, 2005: 15), and exposes him to emptiness. In the framework of Baudelairean poetics, ideal and spleen appear as two values which ubiquity has a profound impact both on the sphere of an ideology of poetry, and on the verbalization and the textual organization –as long as both have a clear linguistic scope–: â€Å"Sometimes he believes, and sometimes he does not; sometimes he rises with the ideal, and sometimes hefalls to piec es into the spleen [†¦] It is easy to observe the poems that come from these two opposite perspectives† (Balakian, 1967: 50). In the chain of the poem, ideal and spleen mark, respectively, the victory of what Bonnefoy calls â€Å"poetic alchemy†, of its dynamics, of its operation, but also the movement of its withdrawal or its retreat, the contradiction of the poetic rhetoric with what is perceived further away: it is the meeting of poetry with nothingness, that happens, nevertheless, inside the corroborated possibility of the poem –there is no material failure of poetry in Baudelaire–. De Campos points  out that: el rasgo estilisticamente revolucionario de esos poemas estaria en el dispositivo de choque engendrado por el uso de la palabra prosaica y urbana [†¦] en ? n, por el desenmascaramiento critico que senala la  «sensacion de modernidad » como perdida de la  «aureola » del poeta,  «disolucion del aura en la vivencia del choque » (De Campos, 2000: 36). So, the usual lyrical vocabulary faces up to unusual â€Å"allegorical† quotes, which burst in the text in the style of an â€Å"act of violence† (2000: 36). Ideal and spleen mark the comparison of the consonant and the dissonance, of the romantic poetical rhetoric, of its power of evocation and transcendence, with a more austere rhetoric, of prosaic nature, that undermines the poetization through the imposition in the text of another movement, negative (the negative is read in terms of the contesting of a consolidated representation of the poetic). A ? rst reading of the translations by Nydia Lamarque and Americo Cristofalo makes it possible to observe that we are talking about writings ruled by two completely different â€Å"poetic rhetorics†5, which in the translation framework are based on a combination of decisions that determine the rewriting of the source-language text. These  rhetorics are assumed and stated explicitly by each of the translators in this paratextual mechanism that is relevant to any translation, set up in order to justify what has been carried out, to try and specify its exact sense, to protect it: the introduction. So, in her introduction, Nydia Lamarque, in order to explain her actions, turns to two masters: Holderlin and Chateaubriand. From the second one –translator of Paradise Lost by Milton into French–, the female translator extracts her translation methodology, that she summarizes in one precise formula: â€Å"To trace Baudelaire’s poems NOTES 5 | As Noe Jitrik points out, the  poem is a place, a material support on which certain operations are carried out that are â€Å"governed by rhetoric, in both a limited sense of rhetoric –strict rules and conventions– as in a wide sense –the obedience to or the subversion to the rules– and even pretentions or attempts of â€Å"non-rhetoric†, which effect, operatively speaking, is, nevertheless, the identi? cation of a text as a poem† (Jitrik, 2008: 63). 138 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen – Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. on a glass† (in Baudelaire, 1947: 39), which implies the search for  an isomorphism between the original and the translation, the lexical, syntactic, metrical isomorphism. More than a half century later, after the pioneering translation by Lamarque, Americo Cristofalo builds an academic reading and develops more complex hypotheses. He maintains that his translation is built up on the basis of two conjectures: the ? rst one, that metrics and rhyme â€Å"are not strictly bearers of sense† (Cristofalo in Baudelaire, 2006: XXVI) and the second one, the exposition of the double con? ict about the Baudelairean rhythms: Del lado del Ideal: la retorica poetizante, los mecanismos prosodicos, la  desustanciacion adjetiva, los hechizos de la lirica. Del lado del Spleen: tension hacia la prosa, aliento sustantivo, una corriente baja, material, de choque critico (2006: XXVII). Taking into account these positions, we can get back the ? rst verses of one of the poems of â€Å"Spleen† to know what we are talking about: 1. J’ai plus de souvenirs que si j’avais mille ans. 2. Un gros meuble a tiroirs encombre de bilans, 3. De vers, de billets doux, de proces, de romances, 4. Avec de lourds cheveux roules dans des quittances, 5. Cache moins de secrets que mon triste cerveau. 6. C’est un pyramide, un immense caveau, 7.  qui contient plus de morts que la fosse commune. (Charles Baudelaire) 1. Yo tengo mas recuerdos que si tuviera mil anos. 2. Un arcon atestado de papeles extranos, 3. de cartas de amor, versos, procesos y romances, 4. con pesados cabellos envueltos en balances, 5. menos secretos guarda que mi triste cabeza. 6. Es como una piramide, como una enorme huesa, 7. con mas muertos que la comun fosa apetece. (Nydia Lamarque) 139 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen – Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. 1. Tengo mas recuerdos que si hubiera vivido mil anos. 2. Un gran mueble con cajones llenos de cuentas, 3. versos, cartitas de amor, procesos, romances, 4. sucios pelos enredados en recibos, 5. guarda menos secretos que mi triste cabeza. 6. Es una piramide, una sepultura inmensa 7. que contiene mas muertos que una fosa comun. (Americo Cristofalo) The comparison allows us to notice the distinctive characteristics of each translation. In the case of Lamarque, the metrical imperative is conditional on all the other choices and has a direct impact on the intelligibility of the verses. The syntax gets more complicated – hyperbatons predominate–, the organization of the sense of the verse is compromised, new lexemes are added and some are suppressed in order to hold the rhyme patterns. We are not trying to cast a shadow on this translation –to which we have to admit its statute of inaugural work–, but we are interested in showing its contradiction, since the translation by Lamarque ends up obtaining quite the opposite of what he enunciated as his mandate: â€Å"Each word has to be respected and reproduced as things that do not belong to us† (Lamarque in Baudelaire, 1947: 39). As far as he is concerned, Americo Cristofalo, who in the introduction to his translation goes through the previous versions –among them is  the translation by Lamarque6–, gives up the rhyme, which allows him to carry out a work of rewriting closer to the French text: the verses are, syntactically, less complex than those in Lamarque version, clearer. Cristofalo builds a poem governed by another rhetoric, stripped of all those â€Å"processes of poetization† that appear in the translation by Lamarque, although someone could wonder if the elimination of rhyme in his translation does not imply, partly, the loss of this tension between ideal and spleen that characterizes Baudelairean poetics. But in order to appreciate what Lamarque and Cristofalo do with the  Baudelairean spleen (tedium, for Cristofalo; weariness, for Lamarque), it is enough to concentrate on only one of the aforementioned verses, the fourth one, which we mention now isolated: †¦Avec de lourds cheveux roules dans des quittances (Baudelaire) †¦con pesados cabellos envueltos en balances (Lamarque) †¦sucios pelos enredados en recibos (Cristofalo) A metonymic verse that with its minimum length shows the best of each translation. The lexical selection displays two completely different records: Lamarque produces a more solemn verse, leant NOTES 6 | Cristofalo maintains that the translation by Nydia Lamarque resembles the one  by Eduardo Marquina, whom she condemns: â€Å"Lamarque [†¦] bitterly complains about the unfaithfulness of Marquina, who chooses symmetrical poetic measures –otherwise he thinks he would not respect the original–, she says she maintains the prosody, the rhyme, she says she is scrupulous about the adjectivation. However, the effect of pomp, of conceit and affectation in the tone is the same, the same dominion of procedures of poetization, and of confused articulation of a meaning† (Cristofalo in Baudelaire, 2006: XXV). 140 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen – Santiago Venturini  452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. on a delicate, subtle image, a verse with a modernist ? avour (â€Å"heavy hair wrapped in accounts†); whereas Cristofalo destroys any effect of poeticity in this direction. He simpli? es the lexical selection (â€Å"dirty hairs† instead of â€Å"heavy hair†) and he builds a harsher image, in a realist style. Both translations strengthen the Baudelairean image, but in opposite directions: Lamarque leads it towards a lyrical intensity, Cristofalo makes it more prosaic. There are other questions that can be appreciated in the cross-reading of these poems, for example the presence of a repeated pattern in the  version by Lamarque, boudoir, (that Cristofalo translates as tocador or dressing table), which expresses a whole attitude towards the foreign language; we see the same contrast in the lexical choices, that apart from being bound to the aesthetic reconstruction of the poem, marks re-elaborations that are different from the Baudelairean images, as in the case of this verse: †¦un granit entoure d’une vague epouvante (Baudelaire) †¦una granito rodeado de un espanto inconsciente (Lamarque) †¦una piedra rodeada por una ola de espanto (Cristofalo) Here, Nydia Lamarque and Americo Cristofalo carry out a grammatical  reading that is different from the alliance â€Å"vague epouvante†: Lamarque inclines herself towards an abstract image (she interprets vague as an adjective of epouvante), whereas the image on which Cristofalo bases himself has something of a maritime snapshot (he interprets vague as a noun: wave), it is more referential. Both these works of rewriting grant to the Baudelairean text a different scope; they assemble two images by Baudelaire that respond to conventions and aesthetic values that are also differentiated. In this way, they do nothing but demonstrating the true nature of the translative act. Even if it is true and undeniable that we are talking, all the time, about the translation of a previous text, pre-existing –of an â€Å"original†Ã¢â‚¬â€œ, it is also true and undeniable that translation is a deeply critical and creative practice, that exceeds the borders of the reproduction of a text –its forms move from appropriation to subversion–, a practice that in the passage of a text to another shows all the thickness of its power. . 141 Comparative literature and translation: two Argentinean versions of the Baudelairean spleen – Santiago Venturini 452? F. #04 (2011) 131-141. Works cited BALAKIAN, A.  (1969): El movimiento simbolista. Juicio critico. 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(1985): The Manipulation of Literature, London & Sidney: Croom Helm. JITRIK, N. (2008): Conocimiento, retorica, procesos. Campos discursivos, Buenos Aires: Eudeba. LEFEVERE, A. (1995):  «Com parative Literature and Translation », Comparative Literature, 1, vol. XLVII, 1-10 MESCHONNIC, H.(2007): La poetica como critica del sentido. Trad. de Hugo Savino, Buenos Aires: Marmol/Izquierdo. ROSA, N. (2006): Relatos Criticos. Cosas animales discursos, Buenos Aires: Santiago Arcos. TYMOCZKO, M. (2008):  «Translation, ethics and ideology in the age of globalization » en Camps, A. y Zybatow, L. (eds. ), Traduccion e interculturalidad, Bruselas: Peter Lang, 285-302. VENUTI, L. (1992): Rethinking Translation, USA y Canada: Routledge. WILFERT, B.  «Cosmopolis et l’homme invisible. Les importateurs de literature etrangere en France, 1885-1914 », Actes de la Recherche Sociale, 144, 33-46.

Psychoanalytic Theories Essay

The psychoanalytic theories of Freud, Jung, and Adler are similar in so many ways, but different at the same time. Each one starts their theories of by studying the behavior of young children as they developed into young adults. By studying their behavior as a child showed that, the events and activities that the child experience affected them as adults. What the child experienced at a young age affected each child differently, from making them feel inferior or powerless to their peers and parents. These feelings led to them having inferior complex as adults. Freud, Jung and Adler had their own view on the human behavior. Jung is unique in recognizing that the ‘dissociability of the psyche’ is a fundamental process that extends along the continuum from ‘normal’ mental functioning to ‘abnormal’ states. However, when the cohesion of consciousness is shattered by extreme childhood traumata, as it is in the development of multiple personality, this natural differentiation of function is intensified and the dissociative splits between autonomous forces in the psyche become more extreme. In addition, the phenomenon of multiple personality is, in turn, important for realizing the central significance of dissociation in the complex theory and provides an excellent contemporary clinical example of the archetypal ground of the psyche (1989). Freud’s speculative reconstruction of the original human family consisting of a dominant, powerful man governing over a subordinate group of women and younger men, and accounting for the origin of behaviors such as the incest taboo, guilt, totemism, and marriage outside one’s own social group. His approach, theories, and methods have been criticized for several reasons: the unsystematic and uncontrolled manner of data collection and interpretation; an overemphasis on biological factors, especially sex, as the major force in personality development, and an excessive deterministic or mechanistic view of the influence of past behavior on a person’s present functioning (2006). Adler theory was different from Jung’s and Freud’s, his theory was based on human motivation, individual psychology, inferiority and superiority complex, organ inferiority and aggression driven. Unlike Jung and Freud their theories were more based on the sexual behavior of a person, Adler studied each person’s motivation for their actions. During his studies he discovered femininity in women and the masculinity in men. He believed that all children were powerless and dependent because of the position in today’s sociality. This did not only play a role in sociality but as well in the order in which you were born in your family. Throughout each chapter I found numerous traits and characteristics that I agreed with but the two that stands out the most to me are superiority complex and the aggression drive found in Adler theories. Superiority complex is in everyone someway shape of fashion; it is just human nature to want to control someone or something in life. As a child we are looking up to everyone and wanting to be in their position because it looks a lot better from where we stand. The superiority complex goes hand in hand with the aggression drive due to the fact that we are so ready to be an adult. The aggression drive trait pushes us to be more aggressive in accomplishing our goals to be a successful adult and have the finer things in life. We all have different personalities however the superiority complex and aggression drive characteristics is majority of all of us, however in Freud’s studies he created several stages they he believed people go through for example the phallic and oral stage as a child. These stages are something that children go through but grow out of them as an adult, I disagree with these stages because as a child you are learning new things every day and by learning something different your judgment will become better and you will know what and what not to do. Adler, Freud and Jung had their own personal psychoanalytic theories based on sexual behavior, childhood experiences, and other major events that happen throughout their lives. The study of the human personality is always changing and developing new traits and characteristics, no one person is the same but we all have similar traits and characteristics. Psychoanalytic theories are good to help better understand a person’s personality but it is not a tool that can really be reliable if you do not study the individual’s background and religion. ?

The Nervous Tissue Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Nervous Tissue - Coursework Example The connective tissue generally serves to support and connect the body tissues. It also functions in protecting organs and storage of nutrients. The elements of this tissue are fibres, ground substance, and cells. The loose connective tissues (areolar, adipose and reticular) and dense connective tissue (dense regular and dense irregular) are the two kinds of the mentioned tissue. The bone, cartilage, and blood are specialized connective tissues. Categorized into compact and spongy is the bone tissue. The types of cartilage are hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage and the blood tissue consists of erythrocytes, thrombocytes, and leucocytes. There are three types of muscle tissues, namely the smooth, skeletal and cardiac muscles. The cells that constitute the smooth muscle are spindle-shaped, lying on the walls of organs and blood vessels. The smooth is an involuntary muscle. Striated and packed in bundles, the skeletal muscle aids in movement because it attaches to bones while the cardiac muscle tissue is located in the heart. It is vital for effective blood-flow, which accounts for the heartbeat. The muscular tissue allows for movement of structures and that of the entire body. It also moves food, waste, and blood through organs and accounts for mechanical digestion.The epithelial tissue is classified into tow, namely the cell shape and layer arrangement. Squamous (flat), cuboidal, columnar and transitional are shapes of the tissue in discussion. Based on cell arrangement, the tissue consists of simple, stratified and pseudostratified columnar epithelium. Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells for filtration and absorption while stratified aids in protection from abrasion on the skin. Tissues of the endocrine and exocrine glands form the glandular epithelial tissue. The epithelium functions to cover the surface of the body and lining body cavities. It plays roles in filtering and secretion as well.

Contract Scenario Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Contract Scenario - Article Example One of the first requirements in order to a valid contract to exists is that there must be an offer and an acceptance of that offer.1 A contract will be deemed to exist when an offer has been made by one party which has been accepted by the other party for a mutually agreed consideration, and the acceptance has been communicated to the offerer. In this scenario, at the outset, a distinction needs to be made between an offer and an invitation to treat. An offer is an indication of the willingness to contract, with the intent to be bound by it as soon as the offer is accepted, whereas an invitation to treat is when offers are being solicitor which the offeree is then free to accept or receive. The consideration in this case is the amount of 4000 plus pounds which is the sum payable for receiving the contract in exchange. In the case of Currie v Lisa2 consideration has been defined as "' some right, interest, profit or benefit accruing to one party, or some forebearance, detriment, loss or responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the other." In this case, the question of consideration can be fairly easily established since Andrea is receiving a sum of cash to compensate her for the detriment she is suffering through the loss of her caravan. Therefore there is scope for formation of contract on the basis of consideration, to show that contracts can be formed, if other terms apply, such as offer and acceptance and the communication of that acceptance. Andrea has placed the notice about her caravan which states her terms of sale clearly, i.e, the price of 4750 pounds and her telephone number. The first question that arises is whether this in effect, constitutes an offer or whether it is more likely to be considered to be an invitation to treat. Andrea's note on her caravan will not strictly constitute an offer. Merely displaying the goods with a price ticket on them is not an offer; it is only an invitation being extended to potential buyers to make an offer to buy. An invitation to treat, as in an advertisement, is different from an offer in the sense that it does not bind the one making the offer. In the case of Fisher v Bell 3 the display of a flick knife with a price tag in a window was held to be an invitation to treat and not an offer. In PSGB v Boots4 the Court clarified that it is only after the offer is accepted and communicated that a contract will come into being. Hence, Andrea's display of the note on her caravan does n ot mean that she has is bound to it as soon as her offer is accepted, she is merely inviting potential buyers to make an offer so that she can consider whether or not she wants to accept it. For a contract to be valid, "there must be a definite offer mirrored by a definite acceptance."5 An acceptance will be said to occur when the offeree's words or conduct can give rise to an objective reference that he/she has assented to the terms offered.6 If the offeree has some queries or tries to change the terms in any way, the original offer, therefore it will be rejected and a counter offer will take its place, based upon the new terms that constitute the counter offer. For example, in the case of Hyde v Wrench7 the plaintiffs sent a telegram to the defendant on the price of the product but the defendants responded with their own offer, which was held to be a counter offer and therefore did not constitute acceptance. Bernice has contacted Andrea but instead of accepting Andrea's offer,

Secondary data exercise Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Secondary data exercise - Case Study Example In recent corporate history, if there is one company which had demonstrated exemplary leadership and admirable resilience, to pull back itself from an imminent collapse, it could be none other than Marks & Spencer, the Retail Stores legend of the UK. The main plank on which it staked its entire hope was its compelling and convincing advertisement strategy. When the decline was confirmed and could not be ignored any more, the company under the guidance of Sir Stuart Rose as its new chairman decided to take the bull by the horn. How it girdled up its loin and strained every nerve to successfully tide over crisis after crisis, is an interesting corporate story. 2. Analysis for the causes, and drafting the remedial measures: An objective analysis brought out the following serious anomalies staring at the face of M&S, (the later shorter logo version of Marks &Spencer): sales were steadily dwindling (the worst was during 2004-2006), customers were slowly moving away since their preferences and what M&S offered didn't match very often, customer service offered by M&S was below par and competitor pressure was mounting. Now the company had very little option. They had to undertake damage-control measures quickly to restore the sagging confidence of even their most loyal customers. Strategic planning and supportive ad campaign came to their rescue, and once they stabilised their standing, then there was no looking back at all. They concentrated more on Communication Strategy to woo the customers back to their showrooms. The advertisement campaigns occupied the prime spot in the marketing communication activities. 3. What is advertising and its significance: What it can do and what it cannot do : Advertising is the core element of any marketing communication which aims to connect the business with its customers. "Advertising can be defined as any paid form of non-personal presentation and communication through mass media. The main aim of advertising is to sell to a wide mix of consumers and also to induce repeat purchases". Again " the main objectives of advertising are creating awareness about a product or store, create a desire to want a product, to communicate the store's policy on various issues, to help in repositioning of the store in the mind of the consumer and to increase the sales of specific categories or to generate short term cash flow by way of a sale, bargain offers or clearance sales. Advertisement can also help in reinforcing the retailer's corporate identity."1 (Swapna Pradhan, 2007) This aspect of recreating the retailer's corporate identity and repositioning the store in th e minds of the consumers weighed heavily with M&S management who decided to launch a dynamic drive into the consumers private preferences in an effective manner. But they were also aware of the limitations of a mere advertisement campaign alone . Primarily communication is used to inform the customers about the retailer, the merchandise and the services. Beyond that it could achieve pretty little of any worth. "It is believed that every brand contact delivers an impression that can strengthen or weaken the consumer's view of the company."2 ( Philip Kotler). So they decided to adequately back it up with a lot of image booster as well as

Are share buybacks a matter of substance or a fashion Essay

Are share buybacks a matter of substance or a fashion - Essay Example A company has to get authority from its shareholders in order to buy back its shares. Usually this is done at its Annual General Meeting. Secondly, and far less common, a company can announce a tender offer. This involves all shareholders submitting a price they would be prepared to accept for their shares. In both instances once the company buy backs the shares it will cancel them, so they will cease to exist. Therefore a company cannot flog the same shares back onto the market at a later date. A company exists to allocate its resources in the most efficient manner for the benefit of its shareholders. Part of its resources may be surplus cash. Surplus cash is cash that it does not require to maintain or expand its business. It may decide to return this cash to its investors. This can be done either by a dividend or by buying back its shares. The decision as to which method is used usually depends on complex taxation issues that we can happily leave to the companys accountants. In recent years there has been increased pressure from investment institutions for companies to return their surplus cash rather than sitting on it just in case they might need it for future acquisitions. The institutions argue that it should be their decision, and not the companys, to hold part of their assets in cash. As a general rule, share buybacks are good for shareholders. The laws of supply and demand would suggest that with fewer shares on the market, the share price would tend to rise. Although the company will see a fall in profits because it will no longer receive interest on the cash, this is more than made up for by the reduction in the number of shares. In effect you get more pie, as although the total size of the pie is reduced this is more than offset by the fact that you get a bigger slice’1. ‘The popularity of share buybacks has catapulted over the past twenty years. In the United States alone, corporate

Getting Interactive Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Getting Interactive Research - Essay Example Moreover, exercises that focus in problem solving and group discussion are crucial in integrative learning tools. This essay focuses on the reasons why interactive approach is essential in training adults. Interactive learning is grounded on the principles of adult learning theory, which emphasize on the need for active involvement of learners in the learning process. According to Trotter (2006), adults appreciate training approaches that allows them to perform tasks such as solving their own problems or training others through sharing of experiences. Adult learning theories focus regarding the ways in which adults learn new skills or acquire information. The adult learning theory, which was developed by Malconlm, Knowles, and Jane Vella, shows that adults prefer learning approaches that enable them to share life experiences and integrate them in the learning process. Interaction is a process that can be created and enhanced. This is done through activities such as scavenger hunt, ro le-play, case analysis, virtual laboratory, and introduction of learning game in the learning process. Such activities encourage learners to find knowledge that is applicable to a given topic and use it in problem solving. Moreover, interactive learning encourages learners to develop novel perspectives, which they can use in their work places. A number of principles govern adult learning process. The principles emphasize on the significance of interactive learning process. For effective learning, adults require to be respected. Moreover, adults prefer a learning process that enables them to realize immediate practicality of learning. Another principle that governs adult learning is creation of a safe learning environment. Another principle that is essential in adult learning is the level of engagement. Adults learn best when actively involved. According to Merriam (2011), interactive learning should be relevant and applicable to real life situations. Therefore, interactive learning process is should meet the above principles for it to be essential. Malcolm Knowles adult learning theory discourages use of teacher-centered models in teaching adults. His theory promotes training strategies that relate to the learners experiences. This increases the relevancy of the concepts making it easy for the adult learners to conceptualize different concepts. Knowles theory consents that interactive learning engages the learners encouraging them to be explorative other than knowledge recipients, which enhances discoveries. Activeness characterizes interactive learning and encourages learners to apply their skills instead of memorizing information. Jarvis (2004) argues that activeness is essential since adults are able to retain knowledge when they learn through application or if they are engaged in discovering the content. Unlike the traditional teacher centered training approach which equipped students with skills to enable them pass tests, learner centered adult training a pproach enables student retain the knowledge. This essential since it enables learners to apply the knowledge acquired in class in the real world. Jack Meziro theory of transformative learning identifies reflection as crucial in enhancing learning. Therefore, interaction is essential in ensuring that the learning process results in direct effects such as acquisition of competency and changed

About emotional inteliqence Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

About emotional inteliqence - Research Paper Example In a way, it makes us self-centered and makes us realize that the world is composed of myself and others and that I need to relate well with others. This relationship with others reflects on our team identity, on how well we perform or get together, on our emotional maturity on how we handle our differences (because for sure there will be) and our over-all development both as professional and a person. In a way emotional intelligence makes us realize that to achieve something, we need to collaborate with others or with a team. And to be able to work effectively with others and/or team, we have to learn how to regulate ourselves so that we can achieve our team’s objectives as well as my objective. This was evident with the questions in the tests that asked if it is completely true, mostly true to completely false if â€Å"it takes a push from others to get me going (question #16) and whether I have an â€Å"obsessive mind† (question #20). These questions which represents the test tries to determine if I can motivate myself, control myself and if I can relate well with others. The idea of Emotional Intelligence can be first traced on the work of Thorndike (1920) who theorized that intelligence is not only confined to academics but also includes emotional and social component (qtd. in Mandell & Pherwarni, 2003). Later, investigators like Guilford (1967) and H. Eysenck (1995) presented that intelligence is such a multifaceted construct that it is composed of one hundred and twenty varying types of intelligence (Lyusin, 2006). In 1971, Shanley, Walker, and Foley (1971) already hypothesized that social intelligence was distinct from academic intelligence, but could not support it with empirical evidence that emotional intelligence is a separate construct. This was later provided by Howard Gardner when he articulated his theory of multiple intelligences categorizing it as intra personal and interpersonal intelligences within within the framework

Unlike golf where a special course Essay Example for Free

Unlike golf where a special course Essay There are many social benefits associated with the game disc golf which are both personal and communal, despite the fact that it can be played alone. It is of great social benefit because it can be played by anyone; adults and children and by both genders; male and female, playing together in one game. Unlike golf where a special course must be prepared, disc golf is more advantageous as it is easy to play and can be organized and played anywhere because the designs of the courses are simple These courses are all over rural America as they can be found in beaches, in open fields or even in forests, increasing the chances of accessibility to the rural population who stand no chance for the more elitist end metropolitan golf or tennis which must be played on a specially prepared course (Disc Golf). Disc golf provides opportunities for quality recreation, which also attracts visitors and it protects the existing valuable natural resources. It has the benefit of preserving and promoting the unique character of the local community using the available resources that are limited economically; hence it is cheap to organize. The fact that its eighteen-hole course takes hours to complete is an excellent opportunity for recreation in terms of valuable popular pastime. The nature of disk golf courses does not distort or change the local landscape and the existing ecosystem. The serene rural atmosphere gives to the locals who engage in this kind of sport better quality in terms of life compared to their metropolitan counterparts. Players of disc golf are provided with benefits that are tangible, intangible as well as unique. The psychological outcome of the game serves in motivating people to participate and this leads to change in conditions such as improved health besides other benefits based on the general community (Maryland Disc Golf). One area of advantage in disc golf is the low cost of constructing a course. One hole takes the community between 500-1000 dollars. This is far much cheaper compared with the cost of constructing the course for regular golf or a tennis court. The locals are thus able to get recreational and health benefits at a low price. Besides, there are no incurred maintenance costs as in tennis or regular golf. Disc golf has led to an improved environment in several cases. Some areas which used as dumpsites have now been converted into disc golf courses, for example the De Laveaga Disc Golf course found in Santa Cruz, California, which was previously being illegally used as a dumping site for trash. All trash was removed and a disc golf course was created. The rehabilitation of some of these areas which were being misused is an excellent case of environmental conservation occasioned by the emergence of disc golf. These areas have become self-sustaining as a result of the funds brought by disc golfers who play here (Rules). This form of sport also has the benefit of revitalizing parks that are underutilized and whose facilities are deteriorating. Some parks which were being used by criminal gangs for outlawed activities are increasingly being turned into disc golf courses. Local communities have taken the initiative of developing new disc golf courses in these areas which were otherwise being used for activities that were destructive to both the environment and the morals of the general society. One such example is in Richmond, Va, whose local park had been taken over by drug dealers where they would transact their deals. This made the area a high risk-zone for locals who could not undertake anything recreational there. A considerable decrease in crime-rate has been reported since the establishment of the course. No more drug deals and vandalism has been reduced substantially, all courtesy of the disc golf course. Bad omen in and around the park has been replaced by good character. Disc golf is not confined to the above named benefits alone. It comes with social benefits too. Families can go on a trip, an outing or a picnic to the local park and participate in group golf activities by playing together, although one can still play disc golf alone. Mini-tournaments and contests are held weekly by area disc clubs. These leagues which promote socialization by bringing together members, new as well as old, who then are presented with an opportunity of sharing experiences (Vegas Golf Specials). The sport provides people who live in the rural areas an alternative way of spending their spare time usefully instead of engaging in some non-beneficial things like drug taking and robbery. Morals are preserved as more parks are built in areas which were otherwise being used by street gangs and drug dealers who, by association, spread their vice to the local communities (Rules). Disk golf is non-exhaustive compared to other games therefore anyone of any gender or age is able to play it. This is also attributed to the fact that the impact of the game is relatively low, therefore weaker people such as women and children are able to actively participate in it and get its full benefits. The sport is an activity of a lifetime necessitated by the fact that a player does it at the pace that they are able to. It is not strenuous. This adds to the game psychological as well as physical benefits to those who engage in it as it only takes one to walk a course and then throw the disc. Carts are foreign to this game (Siniscalchi Pierscalla, 2005).

Madof’s Scandal Essay Example for Free

Madof’s Scandal Essay In the first two weeks of December 2008, the stressed that 70-year old businessman, Bernard Madoff is suffering becomes apparent to his employees, most particularly to his two sons. It concerns a $7 billion redemption request that Madoff had been ‘struggling to obtain the liquidity necessary to meet his obligation’. This made them approach him directly what the problem is all about. The answer is unexpected. Prior to this incident, Madoff is well known throughout the world of economics and investment as a genius and a trustworthy owner of Madoff Investment Securities LLC. The firm is generally a broker-dealer and investment advisor concerned with the management of investors’ assets, giving advice to investment management and is associated with some nonprofit organizations (Helyar et al. , 2009). At the age of 22, Bernard Lawrence Madoff managed to build his firm from his $5,000 savings. Since its first few years in the business, Madoff’s Securities reputation was tantamount to success. Madoff also served as chairman of the board of directors of the NASDQ Stock Market (Byrne et al. , 2005). Madoff confessed, according to Theodore Cacioppi (BackgroundNow. com 2008), that ‘There is no innocent explanation’ pertaining to the fraud that he committed. Cacioppi’s testimony also revealed that Madoff stated to his ‘senior employees’ that he is already ‘finished’ and the firm is actually ‘one giant Ponzi scheme’. The Hennessee Group, represented by Charles Gradante, had also been suspicious of the Madoff’s success when their reports showed that Madoff’s only had 5 months down in a span of 13 years despite several market fluctuations and economic changes. Helyar and colleagues (2009) reported that Madoff’s strategy of split-strike conversion turns out to be front-running. This strategy involves â€Å"brokers’ for their own account†. This is known to be illegal yet Mardoff’s investors didn’t care. Helyar and colleagues believes that investors are concerned about the money they get. In my opinion, Madoff’s scandal opens the public’s eyes to the fact that cheating is indeed prevalent in the American Society. Even successful people cheat and are cheated. The effect cripples the economy and results to distrust. New policies are being and will be initiated to avoid and detect possible frauds. When I heard about the scandal, the first thing that came to my mind was the quote ‘when everything is going your way, you’re probably in the wrong lane’. Taken literally this indicates driving at the other side of the road. Nonetheless, another interpretation reveals that ‘everything coming your way’ resembles things are being ‘too good to be true’ or turning out as you expected. In the case of Madoff’s investors, they looked at the facts; they listen to what former investors say and followed that path expecting the same returns. Despite the fact that Madoff’s offer and profiles seem ‘too good to be true’. They grabbed the chance and hope for the best. At the end, it is the ‘wrong lane’ after all. Madoff fraud strategy is well-known as ‘Ponzi scheme’. This type of fraud had been in the business industry for several decades yet people still fell for it. The good promises are simply too great to refuse. These same things eluded logical thinking and provoke greed. The scandal affects the investors and their reputation. It also raised doubts regarding implementation of laws and economic policies. It posed new challenges for proper investment management and questions the liability of security firms. Moreover, it is not simply an issue of crime or fraud; rather it undermines societal values and trends. References BackgroundNow. com. (2008). Bernard L. Madoff Charged In Multi-Billion Dollar Ponzi Scheme. Retrieved on February 17, 2009 from http://books. google. com/books? id=m2_yfK582ukC Helyar, J. , Burton, K. , and Silver, V. (2009). Roots of a $50 billion Ponzi Scheme. Retrieved on February 17, 2009, from http://www. businessmirror. com. ph/index. php? option=com_contentview=articleid=5577:roots-of-a-50-billion-ponzi-scheme-catid=46:bloomberg-specialsItemid=70 McShane, L. (2008). Bernard Bernie Madoff: From Queens lifeguard to soaking fraud. Retrieved on February 17, 2009, from http://www. nydailynews. com/news/ny_crime/2008/12/13/2008-12-13_bernard_bernie_madoff_from_queens_lifegu. html Schwartz, R. A. , Byrne, J. A. , and Colaninno, A. (2005). Coping with Institutional Order Flow. Springer. US Security and Exchange Commission. (2001). â€Å"Ponzi† Schemes. Retrieved on February 17, 2009, from http://www. sec. gov/answers/ponzi. htm